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GENERAL
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II)
13 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
Chapter 9
PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
9.1. Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multidimensional
endeavour involving various sectors of economic activity. The options
and measures described in the present chapter are recommended for
consideration and, as appropriate, implementation by Governments and
other bodies in their efforts to protect the atmosphere.
9.2. It is recognized that many of the issues discussed in this
chapter are also addressed in such international agreements as the 1985
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as
amended, the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
and other international, including regional, instruments. In the case
of activities covered by such agreements, it is understood that the
recommendations contained in this chapter do not oblige any Government
to take measures which exceed the provisions of these legal
instruments. However, within the framework of this chapter,
Governments are free to carry out additional measures which are
consistent with those legal instruments.
9.3. It is also recognized that activities that may be undertaken in
pursuit of the objectives of this chapter should be coordinated with
social and economic development in an integrated manner with a view to
avoiding adverse impacts on the latter, taking into full account the
legitimate priority needs of developing countries for the achievement
of sustained economic growth and the eradication of poverty.
9.4. In this context particular reference is also made to programme
area A of chapter 2 of Agenda 21 (Promoting sustainable development
through trade).
9.5. The present chapter includes the following four programme areas:
(a) Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific
basis for decision-making;
(b) Promoting sustainable development:
(i) Energy development, efficiency and consumption;
(ii) Transportation;
(iii) Industrial development;
(iv) Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use;
(c) Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion;
(d) Transboundary atmospheric pollution.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific
basis for decision-making
Basis for action
9.6. Concern about climate change and climate variability, air
pollution and ozone depletion has created new demands for scientific,
economic and social information to reduce the remaining uncertainties
in these fields. Better understanding and prediction of the various
properties of the atmosphere and of the affected ecosystems, as well as
health impacts and their interactions with socio-economic factors, are
needed.
Objectives
9.7. The basic objective of this programme area is to improve the
understanding of processes that influence and are influenced by the
Earth's atmosphere on a global, regional and local scale, including,
inter alia, physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic,
hydrological, economic and social processes; to build capacity and
enhance international cooperation; and to improve understanding of the
economic and social consequences of atmospheric changes and of
mitigation and response measures addressing such changes.
Activities
9.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental
and non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Promote research related to the natural processes affecting
and being affected by the atmosphere, as well as the critical linkages
between sustainable development and atmospheric changes, including
impacts on human health, ecosystems, economic sectors and society;
(b) Ensure a more balanced geographical coverage of the Global
Climate Observing System and its components, including the Global
Atmosphere Watch, by facilitating, inter alia, the establishment and
operation of additional systematic observation stations, and by
contributing to the development, utilization and accessibility of these
databases;
(c) Promote cooperation in:
(i) The development of early detection systems concerning
changes and fluctuations in the atmosphere;
(ii) The establishment and improvement of capabilities to
predict such changes and fluctuations and to assess the
resulting environmental and socio-economic impacts;
(d) Cooperate in research to develop methodologies and identify
threshold levels of atmospheric pollutants, as well as atmospheric
levels of greenhouse gas concentrations, that would cause dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system and the environment
as a whole, and the associated rates of change that would not allow
ecosystems to adapt naturally;
(e) Promote, and cooperate in the building of scientific
capacities, the exchange of scientific data and information, and the
facilitation of the participation and training of experts and technical
staff, particularly of developing countries, in the fields of research,
data assembly, collection and assessment, and systematic observation
related to the atmosphere.
B. Promoting sustainable development
1. Energy development, efficiency and consumption
Basis for action
9.9. Energy is essential to economic and social development and
improved quality of life. Much of the world's energy, however, is
currently produced and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if
technology were to remain constant and if overall quantities were to
increase substantially. The need to control atmospheric emissions of
greenhouse and other gases and substances will increasingly need to be
based on efficiency in energy production, transmission, distribution
and consumption, and on growing reliance on environmentally sound
energy systems, particularly new and renewable sources of energy. 1/
All energy sources will need to be used in ways that respect the
atmosphere, human health and the environment as a whole.
9.10. The existing constraints to increasing the environmentally sound
energy supplies required for pursuing the path towards sustainable
development, particularly in developing countries, need to be removed.
Objectives
9.11. The basic and ultimate objective of this programme area is to
reduce adverse effects on the atmosphere from the energy sector by
promoting policies or programmes, as appropriate, to increase the
contribution of environmentally sound and cost-effective energy
systems, particularly new and renewable ones, through less polluting
and more efficient energy production, transmission, distribution and
use. This objective should reflect the need for equity, adequate
energy supplies and increasing energy consumption in developing
countries, and should take into consideration the situations of
countries that are highly dependent on income generated from the
production, processing and export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels
and associated energy-intensive products and/or the use of fossil fuels
for which countries have serious difficulties in switching to
alternatives, and the situations of countries highly vulnerable to
adverse effects of climate change.
Activities
9.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of
the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate,
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and the private
sector, should:
(a) Cooperate in identifying and developing economically
viable, environmentally sound energy sources to promote the
availability of increased energy supplies to support sustainable
development efforts, in particular in developing countries;
(b) Promote the development at the national level of
appropriate methodologies for making integrated energy, environment and
economic policy decisions for sustainable development, inter alia,
through environmental impact assessments;
(c) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of
improved energy-efficient technologies and practices, including
endogenous technologies in all relevant sectors, giving special
attention to the rehabilitation and modernization of power systems,
with particular attention to developing countries;
(d) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of
technologies and practices for environmentally sound energy systems,
including new and renewable energy systems, with particular attention
to developing countries;
(e) Promote the development of institutional, scientific,
planning and management capacities, particularly in developing
countries, to develop, produce and use increasingly efficient and less
polluting forms of energy;
(f) Review current energy supply mixes to determine how the
contribution of environmentally sound energy systems as a whole,
particularly new and renewable energy systems, could be increased in an
economically efficient manner, taking into account respective
countries' unique social, physical, economic and political
characteristics, and examining and implementing, where appropriate,
measures to overcome any barriers to their development and use;
(g) Coordinate energy plans regionally and subregionally, where
applicable, and study the feasibility of efficient distribution of
environmentally sound energy from new and renewable energy sources;
(h) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social
and economic measures, in order to improve energy efficiency;
(i) Build capacity for energy planning and programme management
in energy efficiency, as well as for the development, introduction, and
promotion of new and renewable sources of energy;
(j) Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emission
standards or recommendations at the national level, 2/ aimed at the
development and use of technologies that minimize adverse impacts on
the environment;
(k) Encourage education and awareness-raising programmes at the
local, national, subregional and regional levels concerning energy
efficiency and environmentally sound energy systems;
(l) Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperation with
the private sector, labelling programmes for products to provide
decision makers and consumers with information on opportunities for
energy efficiency.
2. Transportation
Basis for action
9.13. The transport sector has an essential and positive role to play
in economic and social development, and transportation needs will
undoubtedly increase. However, since the transport sector is also a
source of atmospheric emissions, there is need for a review of existing
transport systems and for more effective design and management of
traffic and transport systems.
Objectives
9.14. The basic objective of this programme area is to develop and
promote cost-effective policies or programmes, as appropriate, to
limit, reduce or control, as appropriate, harmful emissions into the
atmosphere and other adverse environmental effects of the transport
sector, taking into account development priorities as well as the
specific local and national circumstances and safety aspects.
Activities
9.15. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of
the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate,
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and the private
sector, should:
(a) Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost-effective, more
efficient, less polluting and safer transport systems, particularly
integrated rural and urban mass transit, as well as environmentally
sound road networks, taking into account the needs for sustainable
social, economic and development priorities, particularly in developing
countries;
(b) Facilitate at the international, regional, subregional and
national levels access to and the transfer of safe, efficient,
including resource-efficient, and less polluting transport
technologies, particularly to the developing countries, including the
implementation of appropriate training programmes;
(c) Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts at collecting,
analysing and exchanging relevant information on the relation between
environment and transport, with particular emphasis on the systematic
observation of emissions and the development of a transport database;
(d) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social
and economic measures, in order to encourage use of transportation
modes that minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere;
(e) Develop or enhance, as appropriate, mechanisms to integrate
transport planning strategies and urban and regional settlement
planning strategies, with a view to reducing the environmental impacts
of transport;
(f) Study, within the framework of the United Nations and its
regional commissions, the feasibility of convening regional conferences
on transport and the environment.
3. Industrial development
Basis for action
9.16. Industry is essential for the production of goods and services
and is a major source of employment and income, and industrial
development as such is essential for economic growth. At the same
time, industry is a major resource and materials user and consequently
industrial activities result in emissions into the atmosphere and the
environment as a whole. Protection of the atmosphere can be enhanced,
inter alia, by increasing resource and materials efficiency in
industry, installing or improving pollution abatement technologies and
replacing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting
substances with appropriate substitutes, as well as by reducing wastes
and by-products.
Objectives
9.17. The basic objective of this programme area is to encourage
industrial development in ways that minimize adverse impacts on the
atmosphere by, inter alia, increasing efficiency in the production and
consumption by industry of all resources and materials, by improving
pollution-abatement technologies and by developing new environmentally
sound technologies.
Activities
9.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of
the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate,
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and the private
sector, should:
(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social
and economic measures, in order to minimize industrial pollution and
adverse impacts on the atmosphere;
(b) Encourage industry to increase and strengthen its capacity
to develop technologies, products and processes that are safe, less
polluting and make more efficient use of all resources and materials,
including energy;
(c) Cooperate in the development and transfer of such
industrial technologies and in the development of capacities to manage
and use such technologies, particularly with respect to developing countries;
(d) Develop, improve and apply environmental impact assessments
to foster sustainable industrial development;
(e) Promote efficient use of materials and resources, taking
into account the life cycles of products, in order to realize the
economic and environmental benefits of using resources more efficiently
and producing fewer wastes;
(f) Support the promotion of less polluting and more efficient
technologies and processes in industries, taking into account
area-specific accessible potentials for energy, particularly safe and
renewable sources of energy, with a view to limiting industrial
pollution, and adverse impacts on the atmosphere.
4. Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use
Basis for action
9.19. Land-use and resource policies will both affect and be affected
by changes in the atmosphere. Certain practices related to terrestrial
and marine resources and land use can decrease greenhouse gas sinks and
increase atmospheric emissions. The loss of biological diversity may
reduce the resilience of ecosystems to climatic variations and air
pollution damage. Atmospheric changes can have important impacts on
forests, biodiversity, and freshwater and marine ecosystems, as well as
on economic activities, such as agriculture. Policy objectives in
different sectors may often diverge and will need to be handled in an
integrated manner.
Objectives
9.20. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To promote terrestrial and marine resource utilization and
appropriate land-use practices that contribute to:
(i) The reduction of atmospheric pollution and/or the
limitation of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;
(ii) The conservation, sustainable management and enhancement,
where appropriate, of all sinks for greenhouse gases;
(iii) The conservation and sustainable use of natural and
environmental resources;
(b) To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric changes and
their socio-economic and ecological impacts are fully taken into
account in planning and implementing policies and programmes concerning
terrestrial and marine resources utilization and land-use practices.
Activities
9.21. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of
the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate,
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and the private
sector, should:
(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social
and economic measures, in order to encourage environmentally sound
land-use practices;
(b) Implement policies and programmes that will discourage
inappropriate and polluting land-use practices and promote sustainable
utilization of terrestrial and marine resources;
(c) Consider promoting the development and use of terrestrial
and marine resources and land-use practices that will be more resilient
to atmospheric changes and fluctuations;
(d) Promote sustainable management and cooperation in the
conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs
of greenhouse gases, including biomass, forests and oceans, as well as
other terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems.
C. Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion
Basis for action
9.22. Analysis of recent scientific data has confirmed the growing
concern about the continuing depletion of the Earth's stratospheric
ozone layer by reactive chlorine and bromine from man-made CFCs, halons
and related substances. While the 1985 Vienna Convention for the
Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (as amended in London in 1990)
were important steps in international action, the total chlorine
loading of the atmosphere of ozone-depleting substances has continued
to rise. This can be changed through compliance with the control
measures identified within the Protocol.
Objectives
9.23. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To realize the objectives defined in the Vienna Convention
and the Montreal Protocol and its 1990 amendments, including the
consideration in those instruments of the special needs and conditions
of the developing countries and the availability to them of
alternatives to substances that deplete the ozone layer. Technologies
and natural products that reduce demand for these substances should be
encouraged;
(b) To develop strategies aimed at mitigating the adverse
effects of ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface as a
consequence of depletion and modification of the stratospheric ozone
layer.
Activities
9.24. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of
the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate,
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and the private
sector, should:
(a) Ratify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocol and its
1990 amendments; pay their contributions towards the Vienna/Montreal
trust funds and the interim multilateral ozone fund promptly; and
contribute, as appropriate, towards ongoing efforts under the Montreal
Protocol and its implementing mechanisms, including making available
substitutes for CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances and
facilitating the transfer of the corresponding technologies to
developing countries in order to enable them to comply with the
obligations of the Protocol;
(b) Support further expansion of the Global Ozone Observing
System by facilitating - through bilateral and multilateral funding -
the establishment and operation of additional systematic observation
stations, especially in the tropical belt in the southern hemisphere;
(c) Participate actively in the continuous assessment of
scientific information and the health and environmental effects, as
well as of the technological/economic implications of stratospheric
ozone depletion; and consider further actions that prove warranted and
feasible on the basis of these assessments;
(d) Based on the results of research on the effects of the
additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, consider
taking appropriate remedial measures in the fields of human health,
agriculture and marine environment;
(e) Replace CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances,
consistent with the Montreal Protocol, recognizing that a replacement's
suitability should be evaluated holistically and not simply based on
its contribution to solving one atmospheric or environmental problem.
D. Transboundary atmospheric pollution
Basis for action
9.25. Transboundary air pollution has adverse health impacts on humans
and other detrimental environmental impacts, such as tree and forest
loss and the acidification of water bodies. The geographical
distribution of atmospheric pollution monitoring networks is uneven,
with the developing countries severely underrepresented. The lack of
reliable emissions data outside Europe and North America is a major
constraint to measuring transboundary air pollution. There is also
insufficient information on the environmental and health effects of air
pollution in other regions.
9.26. The 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution,
and its protocols, have established a regional regime in Europe and
North America, based on a review process and cooperative programmes for
systematic observation of air pollution, assessment and information
exchange. These programmes need to be continued and enhanced, and
their experience needs to be shared with other regions of the world.
Objectives
9.27. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To develop and apply pollution control and measurement
technologies for stationary and mobile sources of air pollution and to
develop alternative environmentally sound technologies;
(b) To observe and assess systematically the sources and extent
of transboundary air pollution resulting from natural processes and
anthropogenic activities;
(c) To strengthen the capabilities, particularly of developing
countries, to measure, model and assess the fate and impacts of
transboundary air pollution, through, inter alia, exchange of
information and training of experts;
(d) To develop capabilities to assess and mitigate
transboundary air pollution resulting from industrial and nuclear
accidents, natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental
destruction of natural resources;
(e) To encourage the establishment of new and the
implementation of existing regional agreements for limiting
transboundary air pollution;
(f) To develop strategies aiming at the reduction of emissions
causing transboundary air pollution and their effects.
Activities
9.28. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of
the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate,
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, the private
sector and financial institutions, should:
(a) Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements for
transboundary air pollution control and cooperate, particularly with
developing countries, in the areas of systematic observation and
assessment, modelling and the development and exchange of emission
control technologies for mobile and stationary sources of air
pollution. In this context, greater emphasis should be put on
addressing the extent, causes, health and socio-economic impacts of
ultraviolet radiation, acidification of the environment and
photo-oxidant damage to forests and other vegetation;
(b) Establish or strengthen early warning systems and response
mechanisms for transboundary air pollution resulting from industrial
accidents and natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental
destruction of natural resources;
(c) Facilitate training opportunities and exchange of data,
information and national and/or regional experiences;
(d) Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateral bases to
assess transboundary air pollution, and elaborate and implement
programmes identifying specific actions to reduce atmospheric emissions
and to address their environmental, economic, social and other effects.
Means of implementation
International and regional cooperation
9.29. Existing legal instruments have created institutional structures
which relate to the purposes of these instruments, and relevant work
should primarily continue in those contexts. Governments should
continue to
cooperate and enhance their cooperation at the regional and global
levels, including cooperation within the United Nations system. In
this context reference is made to the recommendations in chapter 38 of
Agenda 21 (International institutional arrangements).
Capacity-building
9.30. Countries, in cooperation with the relevant United Nations
bodies, international donors and non-governmental organizations, should
mobilize technical and financial resources and facilitate technical
cooperation with developing countries to reinforce their technical,
managerial, planning and administrative capacities to promote
sustainable development and the protection of the atmosphere, in all
relevant sectors.
Human resource development
9.31. Education and awareness-raising programmes concerning the
promotion of sustainable development and the protection of the
atmosphere need to be introduced and strengthened at the local,
national and international levels in all relevant sectors.
Financial and cost evaluation
9.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme
area A to be about $640 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
9.33. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of the four-part
programme under programme area B to be about $20 billion from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
9.34. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme
area C to be in the range of $160-590 million on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and
have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide
upon for implementation.
9.35. The Conference secretariat has included costing for technical
assistance and pilot programmes under paragraphs 9.32 and 9.33.
Notes
1/ New and renewable energy sources are solar thermal, solar
photovoltaic, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, ocean, animal and human
power, as referred to in the reports of the Committee on the
Development and Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy,
prepared specifically for the Conference (see A/CONF.151/PC/119 and
A/AC.218/1992/5).
2/ This includes standards or recommendations promoted by
regional economic integration organizations.
END OF CHAPTER 9